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Databases are the most common source of performance problems in web applications. Slow queries, missing indexes, N+1 query patterns, and lock contention can cripple response times. This topic teaches you how to use query execution plans to understand what the database engine is actually doing. We explore tools like EXPLAIN in PostgreSQL, the MySQL Query Analyzer, and built-in slow query logs. You will learn techniques for rewriting inefficient queries, adding composite indexes strategically, denormalizing data when appropriate, and implementing connection pooling. We also discuss caching layers like Redis and Memcached to reduce database load. Real examples show how a single poorly written query can add seconds to page loads and how targeted fixes can restore sub-second performance.
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